12、GRE阅读理解是GRE作文的不尽源泉—— 兼谈英语思维模式的培养

  在英语学习中,培养英语思维模式常被作为一种有效的学习原则而倡导。但究竟什么才属于英语思维模式,始终没有一个清晰的定义。但有一点是肯定的,即当英语思维模式与汉语思维模式存在交叉(converge)时,培养英语思维模式的重要性并不十分突出。但当两种思维模式分叉(diverge)时,为了使native English speakers不致于遇到语言障碍(language barrier),使用英语特有的表达方式来表达自己的思想才显得殊为重要。举个例子来说,在表达“你是我最不想见的一个人”这一意思时,如果说成“You are the person I do not want to see most.”则是中国式英语;如果说成“You are the person I hate to see most。”仅是基本达意的可接受的英语。地道的英语则是“You are the last person I want to see

  在我写的那篇GRE作文中,最后一段文章是最令我得意的,因为那是最能体现出英语特有的思维模式和表达方式的。对一个非native English speaker来说,是很难形成这种思维习惯和表达能力的。实际上,当我们将英语作为一门外语来学习时,我们对英语思维模式的习得(acquisition)主要体现为对某些句子框架的模仿,并将这种框架与自己所要表达的思想进行合成(synthesis)。因此,任何一个成功的外语学习者都应该是一个有意识的模仿者,积累者,消化者和集大成者。

  熟悉GRE阅读理解的学生应该觉得这一段文字似曾相识,我自己也十分愿意“招供”,这根本不是所谓英语造诣的体现,而是实实在在的模仿和合成。每个句式都可以在某些GRE阅读文章中找到它们的原型(prototype)。

我作文中的第一句“The proposed argument is seriously flawed on two accounts.”可参见NO.9第五套习题Section 2中的长文章28—31行:“The specifically feminist part of Saint-Simonianism has, however, been less studied than the group’s contribution to early socialism. This is regrettable on two accounts. ”

  我作文中的第二句:“In the first place, by the use of the word ‘only’, it posits the committing of mistakes as an absolute condition for accomplishing discoveries and progress, ignoring the foundational importance of the research performed by those scientists preceding us in leading to scientific discoveries and progress.” 可参见NO.9第二套习题Section 7中的长文章41-46行:“This cultural and political emphasis is appropriate, but the colonialist thinkers misdirect it, overlooking the class relations at work in both Puerto Rican and North American history. They pose the clash of national cultures as an absolute polarity, with each culture understood as static and undifferentiated.”

  我作文中的第三和第四句“In the second place, the argument is merely negative, based on the act of being erroneous and even being fallacious. A more plausible and compelling explanation for human discoveries and progress is man’s intelligence as a rational being, his long-accumulated experience and knowledge that have been proved effective through practice, his sound judgments, his right methodologies in understanding himself and the world around him, and his correct decision-making in choosing the proper course of action.” 则可参见NO.7第三套习题Section 4中的长文章45-56行:“Freyre and Tannenbaum have rightly argued that the lack of certain traditions in North America—such as a Roman conception of slavery and a Roman Catholic emphasis on equality—explains why the treatment of Black slaves was more severe there than in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of South America. But this cannot be the whole explanation since it is merely negative, based on a lack of something. A more compelling explanation is that the early and sometimes extreme racial discrimination in the English colonies helped determine the particular nature of the slavery that followed.”

  我在新东方学校从事GRE阅读理解教学的十余年中,每篇文章都讲解过数百遍,对大多数文章都能倒背如流。有几年中,我必须驱车从中关村到西郊香山分校授课,二三十公里的路途,熟悉的道路两侧风景,常令我感觉无趣,于是,在无以为乐的情况下,在四面透风的北京吉普内,在风声和发动机噪声的伴奏下我常以背诵GRE阅读文章作为消遣。教学这一经历给我带来的裨益是巨大的,使我这个以英美文学为专业的人,凭借英语阅读理解能力,熟悉了GRE所有阅读文章所涵盖的知识体系,并且以罕见的精细程度吃透了英语高级学术性写作中的逻辑推理。基于这一经验,我建议,既然参加GRE考试的学生不可避免地也必须参加GRE Verbal考试,学生在进行阅读理解的训练时,决不应该将自己仔细研究过的文章在做完练习后置之脑后,而应该兼顾语言功底和知识结构方面的日常积累,使这种知识和能力的积累也能为GRE作文和日后国外学习中必然会遇到的英语写作提供帮助。

  以我自己的体验,准备GRE作文考试的学生从GRE阅读理解(总共有近250篇全真题文章)中所能获得的裨益是多方面。首先,是知识面的扩展。所有GRE阅读文章在题材上涵盖了四大类的学科,即社会科学、人文科学、自然科学、与生命科学。社会科学中包含历史学、经济学、政治学、社会学、人类学等。人文科学中包含文学、艺术、音乐、考古等。自然科学中包含物理、化学、数学、地理、地质、天文等。生命科学中包含动物学、植物学、生物学、医学等。这四大类的学科百科全书般的丰富知识为我们提供了GRE作文可资借鉴的无穷素材,让我们可以恣意利用。

  从体裁上来看,所有GRE的阅读文章又可分为三大类。第一类是说明性的文章(exposition),描述和解释科学现象和科学原理。第二类是比较(comparison)和对比(contrast)类的文章,研究两种或两种以上的事物或理论相互之间的共同点和不同点。这两种体裁的文章可用来作为GRE作文的素材和例子,因为它们几乎全部来自西方文化背景,因此对ETS的阅卷老师来说均是易于理解的。这就消除了文化隔阂的问题。另一方面,又回避了对有限的几本作文书中相同素材和例子的抄袭,避免了触及“雷同探测器”的危险。

  GRE阅读理解对我们最有用的(无论是对于Issue类还是对于argument类作文的写作)是第三类体裁的文章,即剖析(analysis)与评价(evaluation)型的文章。这类文章一般是围绕某一课题提出不同的论点或理论,然后对合理与不合理的方面进行评估,并依据事实进行支持或者批判。从这类文章中,我们可以学习如何来摆出材料,怎样来说明问题,怎样来归纳总结,以怎样的语气来说话以维持学术上应的平衡,怎样来进行批判与纠正,怎样来指出逻辑推理中的谬误等等。在这类文章中,西方式的严谨逻辑思维的模式可得到最充分的体现。

  例如,在NO.5第二套习题Section 1的长文章中,讲述有一位史学家Johann Bachofen为顺应女权主义思潮,通过对古代神话的研究,发现古代神话中对母系氏族的亚马孙人(Amazons)有大量的记述,便以此断定女性自古以来就极受尊重,并据此为现当代女权主义思想提供基础。但文章作者却对同一事实作出了截然相反的解读,其写作手法绝对值得我们学习仿效:

Nonetheless, this assumption that the first recorders of ancient myths have preserved facts is problematic. If one begins by examining why ancients refer to Amazons, it becomes clear that ancient Greek descriptions of such societies were meant not so much to represent observed historical fact—real Amazonian societies—but rather to offer “moral lessons” on the supposed outcome of women’s rule in their own society. The Amazons were often characterized for example, as the equivalents of giants and centaurs, enemies to be slain by Greek heroes. Their customs were presented not as those of a respectable society, but as the very antitheses of ordinary Greek practices.

Thus, I would argue, the purpose of accounts of the Amazons for their male Greek recorders was didactic, to teach both male and female Greeks that all-female groups, formed by withdrawal from traditional society are destructive and dangerous. Myths about the Amazons were used as arguments for the male-dominated status quo, in which groups composed exclusively of either sex were not permitted to segregate themselves permanently from society. Bachofen was thus misled in his reliance on myths for information about the status of women. The sources that will probably tell contemporary historians most about women in the ancient world are such social documents as gravestones, wills, and marriage contracts. Studies of such documents have already begun to show how mistaken we are when we try to derive our picture of the ancient world exclusively from literary sources, especially myths.

参考译文:

  虽然如此,然则,古代神话的最早记述者得以将史实保存下来这一假设是站不住脚的。如果我们首先作一番审视,古人为何会提及亚马孙人,情况将会变得显而易见,即古希腊对这些社会所作的描述,与其说意欲再现亲眼目睹的历史事实——真正的亚马孙社会——还不如说是要针对女性在他们自己的社会中实行统治所可能产生的后果,提供‘道德训导’。例如,亚马孙人经常被描绘成巨人和人首马身怪物的同类,成为注定要遭古希腊英雄杀戮的敌人。她们的习俗被刻划成不是一个体面的社会应有的习俗,而是与合乎常规的古希腊惯例构成了绝然的对立。

  因此,我要指出, 对于记述神话的古希腊男性来说,有关亚马孙人的描述,其目的是说教性质的(didactic),要教诲古希腊的男性和女性这样一个道理,即那些脱离了传统社会而形成的纯女性群体是破坏性的和危险的。有关亚马孙人的神话是用作论据来为男人统治的现状(status quo)作辩护的,在这种现状中,纯粹地由任一性别构成的群体是不允许与社会永久性地隔绝开来的。如此说来,巴霍芬依赖神话来获取有关女性地位的史料,是失之偏颇的。有关古代世界的妇女,对当代史学家可能最具价值的史料是这样一类社会性文献,诸如墓碑、遗嘱、和婚约。对这类文献资料的研究早已开始证明,当我们试图仅仅从文学来源,尤其是神话,来获取我们对古代世界的理解,这是多么的失误啊。

   最令人拍案叫绝的是93年2月的那套习题中Section 2的那篇长文章,论述某位名叫Walzer的社会政治学家对自由资本主义分配不均的批判。Walzer认为,在自由资本主义体制下,资本家通过擅长赚钱这种突出的品质不仅仅获得了巨大的物质财富,也获得了金钱所带来的他人的尊敬这种精神财富;相比而言,艺术家通过非凡的创造力或许能获得他人的尊敬这一重要的精神财富,但却无法获得物质上的巨大财富。因此,依照“每一种杰出品质都应获得相应的酬报”这一原则,自由资本主义体制是不公平的,因为金钱创造了某种专制暴政。因此,为了实现平等,社会应该让艺术家一类的人也能像资本家那样获得精神与物质财富的双重满足,或者是让资本家仅在物质财富方面获得满足但不让其在精神财富方面得到满足。

  这样一个视若无懈可击的论点却被文章作者彻底推翻,这不能不让我们佩服作者剖析之深邃,思辨之精细。我们不妨从中学习一下作者是如何归纳他人论点,如何进行反驳(refutation),最后又是如何让步承认他人的合理之处的:

The centerpiece of Walzer’s argument is the invocation of a quotation from Pascal’s Pensee, which concludes: “Tyranny is the wish to obtain by one means what can only be had by another.” Pascal believes that we owe different duties to different qualities . … … In this light, Walzer characterizes capitalism as the tyranny of money (or the ability to make it). And Walzer advocates as the means of elimination of this tyranny and of restoring genuine equality “the abolition of the power of money outside its sphere.” What Walzer envisions is a society in which wealth is no longer convertible into social goods with which it has no intrinsic value.

Walzer’s argument is a puzzling one. After all, why should those qualities unrelated to the production of material goods be rewarded with material goods? Is it not tyrannical, in Pascal’s sense, to insist that those who excel in “sensitivity” or “the ability to express compassion” merit equal wealth with those who excel in qualities (such as “the capacity for hard work”) essential in producing wealth? Yet, Walzer’s argument, however deficient, does point to one of the most serious weaknesses of capitalism—namely, that it brings to predominant positions in a society people who, no matter how legitimately they have earned their material rewards, often lack those other qualities that evoke affection or admiration. Some even argue plausibly that this weakness may be irremediable: in any society that, like a capitalist society, seeks to become ever wealthier in material terms, disproportionate rewards are bound to flow to the people who are instrumental in producing the increase in its wealth.

参考译文:
   “沃尔泽论点的奠基石是对帕斯卡尔《思想录》中一句引文的援引。该著作结尾处这么写道:‘专制暴政即是这样一种欲念,希望通过一种手段去获取那些仅能凭藉其它途径获取的事物。’帕斯卡尔相信,我们对不同的品质负有不同的义务。……据此原理,沃尔泽将资本主义体制描绘成金钱的(或赚钱能力的)专制暴政。沃尔泽倡议,作为消除这种专制暴政和恢复真正平等的手段,应‘废除金钱在其范围之外的作用’。沃尔泽所憧憬的是这样一个社会,在这个社会中,物质财富将不再能转化成为与之绝无内在联系的社会财富。

  沃尔泽的论点是令人困惑的。说到底,为什么那些与物质财富的创造毫无联系的品质,非得以物质利益来作为报酬呢?如果坚持认为,那些擅长‘敏感’和‘善于表达怜悯之心’的人,应该获取与那些擅长于在物质财富创造过程中所不可或缺的品质(诸如‘勤奋工作的能力’)的人同等的物质财富,这按帕斯卡尔的意思,难道就不是专制暴政吗?然则,沃尔泽的论点,无论它不充分到何种地步,确实揭示了资本主义体制中最为严重的一个弱点,即它将某一类人置于社会中的显赫位置,这类人无论以怎样合法的手段获得了其物质报酬,却常常缺乏其它那些能唤起他人爱戴和钦佩的品质。某些学者甚至不无道理地指出,这一弱点可能是无法弥补的:在任何一个类似于资本主义社会的社会中,只要它竭力在物质方面始终追求日益的富足,过多的财富注定会流入到那些在其财富增长过程中起着举足轻重作用的人的囊中。”

  最后,ETS有关GRE作文的要求,反复强调规范英语(standard English)的各种用法。在这方面,从GRE阅读文章也能学到不少有益的东西。前面已经讲过,你再怎么满脑子都是思想,也必须套用英语中某些既有的固定句式和表达方式,从而才能显得“地道”起来。而高度formal, academic和scholarly的GRE阅读文章,无论是从全文的整体结构,各段落之间的安排,每个段落内部的组织,每个句子的句法,还是各个句子中的重要词汇、词组及短语,都是值得我们细加研习的。记得我本科刚进大学英语系的第一学期,到期末除了积累了好多本词汇笔记之处,还积累了满满几本从各种阅读材料中摘抄的优美句子,在每次做作业时都会有意识地套用这些句子的结构,从而使自己写的英文也跟着变得优美起来。我想,在我们每个人变成英语专家之前,要使自己的英文写作变得漂亮起来,有意识地对英语优美句式进行模仿恐怕是一条必由之路。

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