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| 儒家思想与国际关系
外交学院国际关系研究所 周永生
Confucianism
and International Relations Zhou Yongsheng
Institute of Researches on International relations
College of Diplomacy
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| It
is most gratifying that in recent years the academic circles
have been very active in the theoretical studies of international
relations and published an endless series of academic research
results. But on second thought one cannot help being worrisome
because most of those results were introductions and evaluations
of Western international relations theories and Western schools
of thought. Even if some scholars tried to set up their own
schools and build a self-independent theoretical framework,
yet most of them could not escape the conventional Western
theories and tended to offer some sort of evolution of Western
international relations theories in China. China still falls
short of its own international relations theory. It is even
more acutely short of an overall outlook of world-accepted
international values except for the Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence. |
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| 近年来，学术界对国际关系理论的研究十分活跃，发表和出版了大量有关的学术研究成果，目不暇接，令人欣慰。但兴奋之余，未免也有几多忧虑。这些成果很多是介绍和评价西方国际关系理论和流派。即使有些学者想自立门户，建立起自成体系的理论框架，但究其实质，大多仍然逃不出西方理论的窠臼，具有西方国际关系理论在中国演绎的倾向。中国缺乏真正属于我们自己的国际关系理论。除了“和平共处五项原则”以外，更缺少能够为世界所普遍认可和接受的国际价值观念。 |
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| All
great powers that can lead the world forward must, apart from
possessing considerable hardcore strength, occupy a prominent
position in “soft strength,” such as ideas and values. This
is a self-evident truth that has been proved time and again
in both history and reality. As an emerging great country,
China must not only stand up economically, but also ideologically
and culturally. Otherwise China’s emergence will be only
one-sided, or lopsided, lacking a force of inspiration. In
a certain sense, ideological and cultural emergence is by
no means easier than economic emergence. Confronted with such
a predicament, we shall find it impossible to find a way out
if we only dig from the present ideologies. To get rid of
such an embarrassing situation, we must absorb nutrition and
foster our forces by digging into the treasure house of ancient
Chinese culture. In this treasure house, the Confucian ideology
that has stood out as the Chinese orthodox for over 2000 years
is a valuable gem worthy our assimilation. If we can introduce
it into the theories of diplomacy and international relations,
this will be certainly very beneficial to setting up a Chinese
theory on diplomacy and international relations with international
value significance. This article aims to make such an attempt
under such guidelines and you are expected to offer your comments |
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| 任何一个能够引导世界前进的大国除了其自身必须具有相当的硬实力以外，还必须在思想和价值观念等软实力方面占有突出的地位，这是不言而喻的道理，亦被历史与现实无数次证明。中国作为一个正在崛起的大国，不仅要在经济上崛起，同时，我们也要在思想文化上崛起。否则，中国的崛起必将是片面的、畸形的，缺乏感召力的。从某种意义上说，思想文化的崛起决不比经济的崛起更容易。面对这一困境，我们仅从现有的意识形态中去挖掘是无法找到出路的。要摆脱这一困境，我们必须从博大精深的中国古文化中去汲取营养，培育力量。其中，2000多年中位居中国正统思想地位的儒家思想有很多值得我们汲取的宝贵精神财富。如果能把它们引入到国际关系、外交的理论中，对于建立一个具有普遍国际价值意义的中国国际关系和外交理论必将是十分有益的。本文试图按此思路作一尝试，以就数于各位。
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| I.
Rule of Virtue: Basic to Nationwide Political Stability
Rule
of virtue is central to Confucian thinking and theory. In
the mind’s eye of Confucians, the rule of virtue is pivotal
to overwhelming nationwide stability. The Great Learning
says, “What the Great Learning teaches is to illustrate
illustrious virtue.” “The ancients who wished to illustrate
illustrious virtue throughout the empire, first ordered
well their own States. Wishing to order well their States,
they first regulated their families. Wishing to regulate
their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing
to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their own
hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought
to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in
their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost their
knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation
of things.” From this we can see that not only the Great
Learning lies in illustrating illustrious virtue (virtue
and morality), but also the proper order of a state lies
in so doing. Only on the basis of ordering well a State
can we go beyond the scope of a state and achieve great
order throughout the empire.
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| 一、“德治”——天下大治的根本
“德治”是儒家思想理论的核心，在儒家看来，“德治”是天下大治的根本。《大学》中说，：“大学之造，在明明德”。“古之欲明德于天下者，先治其国。欲治其国者，先齐其家。欲齐其家者先修其身。欲修其身者，先正其心。欲正其心者，欲诚其意。欲诚其意者，先致其知。致知在格物。”从这里可以看出，不仅大学之道在于弘扬光明的德性（德行、道德），而且，在治理好一国的基础上，才能超出一国的范围界限，把光明的德性弘扬于天下，达到天下大治。
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| The
“superior man” expounded at full length in the Analects
of Confucius implies none other than a man of lofty virtue
and ethics. Not only so, but Confucius thinks that a superior
man may further bring forth his virtue by being faithful and
trustworthy. He says, “A superior man keeps upgrading his
virtue and proficiency. Faithfulness and honesty means upgrading
one’s virtue.” Meanwhile, he considers that only by ruling
the country with virtue could the country be properly ruled.
Hence, the saying: “Governance with virtue is just like the
North Polar Star with the other stars in its accompaniment.”
“Teach the people with virtue, make them well-behaved with
rites and investigate into misconduct.” All these point to
the importance of virtue in ruling the country and governing
the people. Although Confucius did not explain clearly what
virtue was, yet from the Confucian ideological system we can
easily find out virtue has extensive implications. For example,
the Great Learning teaches us “to rest in the highest excellence.”
The Book of History tells us that virtue alone underlies virtuous
governance, which consists in feeding and clothing the population.”
It goes further to say, “Virtue consists in uprightness,
inflexibility and flexibility.” Zi Zhang asked Confucius
how to upgrade virtues, Confucius replied, “ Be faithful
and honest, and uphold justice and you are virtuous.” So,
according to Confucius, one can become virtuous so far as
one practices faith and trust and adheres to what is just
and fair. In the famous commentary by Zuo Qiuming on the Spring
and Autumn Annals, virtue was further defined in detail, saying
“Filial piety, faith and honesty are good virtues and robbery
and evil-mindedness are bad virtues.” Zuo considered there
were good and bad virtues, but his idea was not in the main
stream of Confucian ideology. Tang thinker Han Yu considered
virtue as something attached to a person or thing without
any outside influence (“What we call virtue exists in it
without outside influence.”) |
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| 孔子在《论语》中通篇所讲的“君子”的含义就是指具有高尚德性、道德的人。不仅如此，孔子认为君子通过忠信还可以使德性获得进一步增长。孔子说：“君子进德修业。忠信，所以进德也。”
同时，孔子认为，必须以德治国，才能治理好国家。所谓“为政以德，譬如北辰，居其所而众星共之。” “道之以德，齐之以礼，有耻且格。”
仍然是强调了“德”对于治理天下、统治人民的重要性。孔子虽然没有明确解释什么是“德”，但是，从儒家的思想体系中我们不难理解它具有广泛的含义。如《大学》中所说的“止于至善”：《尚书》中所说“德惟善政，政在养民。”
“三德：一曰正直，二曰刚克，三曰柔克。” 子张问孔子如何提高德性？孔子回答说：“主忠信，徒义，崇德也。” 孔子认为，以忠诚信实为主，唯义是从，即可提高德性。在《春秋左传》中，甚至还对“德”进行了细致的划分，称“孝敬忠信为吉德，盗贼藏奸为凶德。”
认为德既有好的一面，也有恶的一面。但这种观念在儒家的思想中并不占主流地位。唐代思想家韩愈则认为：德是人、事物自身所具有的，无需外来影响的事物（“足乎无待于外之谓德”）。 |
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| In
a word, in the view of Confucians, virtue is the positive
side of man and things, symbolic of brightness, gentleness,
righteousness, faithfulness, honesty, beauty, moderation and
happiness. Others thought it as embracing benevolence, justice,
rites, wisdom and trust. The rule of virtue means vigorously
publicizing lofty morality to cultivate the people and bring
about a moral atmosphere for all to abide by and thus to achieve
lasting peace in the state and the empire. |
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| 总之，在儒家看来，德是光明、善良、正义、忠信、美好、适度、幸福等人和事物正的一面的象征。也有的人认为它包括了仁、义、礼、智、信等内容，德治，就是大力弘扬高尚的德性，以此来教化人民，形成尚德之风，上下遵守，则可实现国家大治，天下大治。 |
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| But
what is the relationship of the rule of virtue to the modern
international relations? How shall we introduce and assimilate
such ideology into our times then? To understand the Confucian
rule of virtue ideology at the level of the state and international
relations, we may take the following four aspects as the main
inlets: |
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| 那么，这种“德治”思想和现代国际关系有何关联、又如何引进和借鉴这种思想呢？在国家和国际关系的层面来理解和运用儒家的“德治”思想可以主要从以下四个方面作为切入点：
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A.
To achieve stability and smooth survival and development,
it is a must for a state to be virtuous.
According
to Confucians, only in a state of virtue can the people
live and work in peace and contentment. Only when harmony
prevails inside can foreign aggression be warded off. This
is the way leading to state stability, smooth survival and
development. Or in the words of Mencius, “Localizing the
people does not depend on closing the boundaries. Stabilizing
the state does not depend on perilous mountains and rivers.
Authority over the empire does not depend on military superiority.
Righteousness will mean an abundance of support. Injustice
will mean the loss of support. When there is an absolute
loss of support, even relatives will go in revolt. When
there is a great abundance of support, the empire will forge
ahead smoothly… So a superior man is not warlike. But if
he ever fights, he is invincible.” |
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1、
一个国家必须成为一个有道德的国家才能安定、顺利地生存和发展。
儒家认为，一个有道德的国家，人民才能安居乐业，内和则外俱。这样，国家就能安定、顺利地生存和发展下去。即孟子所说的：“域民不以封疆之界，固国不以山溪之险，威天下不以兵戈之利。得道多助，失道寡助。寡助之至，亲戚衅之。多助之至，天下顺之。……固君子有不战，战必胜矣。
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B.
To become powerful, a state must abide by morality and carry
it forward.
Mencius
says, Nothing is better than moral education to assist the
king in ruling the state and to enable the people to improve
themselves. It will be impossible to perform any great deeds
without abiding by morality and pushing it forward with
self-practice. Mencius cited examples of Emperor Tang of
the Shang Dynasty and Emperor Wen of the Zhou Dynasty conquering
the Empire by seventy li and one hundred li territories
respectively. He used these examples to explain the importance
of abiding by and carrying forward morality. He used those
examples to expound how the Legendary Emperors got the support
of the people and thus became strong as the focus of hope
and expectations. The rationale was, conquest by force brings
no sincere compliance. The compliance thus obtained is nothing
but subordination to force. Persuasion by virtue will lead
to sincere and even hearty compliance.”
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2、
一个国家必须遵守道德，并弘扬道德才能强大。
孟子说：要辅佐国君治理国家，使人民都获得提高，没有比进行道德教育更好的方法了。如果不能遵守道德，身体力行地去推行和实现道义，就不能有所作为。
孟子列举了商汤以七十里、周文王以一百里的领地统一天下的事例来说明他们遵守并弘扬道德，令天下人向往，众盼若归，致使其壮大的道理。即“以力服人，非心服也，力不赡也。以德服人，中心悦而诚服也。”
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| C.
In international relations if all countries abide by international
virtues, the world will enjoy a lasting peaceful, harmonious
and healthy development. If they don’t, the world will be
in chaos. If certain isolated countries refuse to do so, they
will be doomed to extinction. |
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| 3、
在国际关系中，各国若普遍遵守国际道德，全世界将长治久安，和谐、健康地发展；各国若不遵守国际道德，势必天下大乱；若个别国家不遵守国际道德，其将自取灭亡。 |
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| It
is easy to understand such Confucian thinking. For example,
during the prime Tang Dynasty in China, when the East Asian
countries absorbed the virtue-conscious Chinese culture, they
were more or less at a stage of development characterized
by relative stability and prosperity. In the Warring States
period, when dukes did not discipline themselves with virtues,
but were fighting each other, the empire was in great chaos
and the people got killed and suffered greatly. During the
Second World War, the German, Japanese and Italian fascists
who, being extremely inhuman and rejecting international virtues,
had run amuck with their mighty forces at one time all ended
up in utter defeat. |
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| 儒家的这种思想是很好理解的。比如在中国的盛唐时期，东亚各国都普遍地吸取了尊崇道德的中国文化，在这一时期内，东亚各国大体处于相对安定、繁荣的发展阶段。而在战国时代，各诸侯国不以道德自律，你争我夺，天下大乱，生灵尽遭涂炭。第二次世界大战时期，德日意法西斯国家泯灭人性，不遵守国际道德，自恃有强大的国力，称霸于一时，最后都走上了灭亡之路。 |
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D.
Abiding by and carrying forward international virtues means
adhering to the rule of virtue in international relations.
Say, adhere to justice and oppose evils and hegemony instead
of the big and strong bullying the small and weak, and so
on.
4、遵守并弘扬国际道德就是坚持了在国际关系上的“德治”。比如说，不以大欺小，不以强凌弱，坚持正义，反对邪恶，反对霸权等。
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II.
“Benevolence”: Basis for the Founding of a Nation
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| 二、“仁政”——立国之基础 |
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| Benevolence
was an important Confucian advocacy in ruling states. According
to Confucianism, whether a state practices benevolence or
not has a vital bearing on whether the state can stabilize
its ruling foundation and whether it can achieve prosperity
or not. |
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| “仁政”是儒家治国的一项重要主张。儒家认为，一个国家是否实行“仁政”，关系到这个国家的统治基础是否稳固，关系到这个国家的盛衰兴亡。 |
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| Mencius
went to see King Hui of Liang Kingdom. The king asked him
if he had any counsel to profit his kingdom. But Mencius replied
that a kingdom would be endangered if people from top down
there were all scrambling for profit. He told the king that
he might rule well his kingdom so far as his majesty practiced
benevolence and righteousness, so why talking about profit?
Those who practiced benevolence and righteousness by means
of virtue might bring the populace to allegiance and popular
allegiance might not necessarily depend on the mighty power
of a kingdom. For Mencius, the three dynasties of Xia, Shang
and Zhou had come to power because of benevolence and lost
their power because of its abolition. “”This was true of
the rise or fall, the prosperity or decline of a kingdom,
too.” Mencius especially emphasized the importance of the
top rulers practicing benevolence. As he claimed, “As the
king is benevolent, so will all others be. As the king is
righteous, so will all others be. If the king is just, so
will all others be. Once the king is just, the kingdom will
be stable.” Mencius cited the words of Confucius to indicate
that the size of a kingdom’s population was not the yardstick
for the commanding strength of benevolence. “ ‘ A king will
be invincible if he is benevolent.’” On the contrary, the
danger would be particularly grave if the top ruler was not
benevolent. He said, “If the emperor is not benevolent, the
empire will be in danger. If the duke is not benevolent, the
dukedom will be in danger. If the ministers are not benevolent,
the ancestor temples will be in danger. If the scholars and
common people are not benevolent, their physiques will be
in danger.” |
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| 孟子见梁惠王，梁惠王披面就提出“亦将有以利吾国乎？”这样的问题。而孟子却回答说：如果一个国家从上到下，都相互争夺利益，那么，这个国家也就危险了。他告诉梁惠王；您只要讲求仁义就可以治理好国家，何必要谈利益呢？
依靠道德去实行仁义的人可以使天下人归顺，使天下人归顺却不必依靠国家的强大。 孟子认为，夏商周三个朝代就是因为实行仁政而获得了天下，又都是因为最后都归于不仁而失去了天下。“国之所以兴废存亡者亦然。”
孟子还特别强调了居于高位的统治者“仁”的重要性。他说：“君仁，莫不仁。君义，莫不义。君正，莫不正。一正君，而国定矣。”
他还引用引子的话来说明，仁的威力是不能用人数来计算的，“‘夫国君好仁天下无敌’”。 反之，居于高位的统治者若不仁危险也特别巨大。他说：“天子不仁，不保四海。诸侯不仁，不保社稷。卿大夫不仁，不保宗庙。士庶人不仁，不保四体。” |
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| But
what was benevolence then? Mencius says, “Benevolence means
the will of the people. “ “Benevolence means loving the
people.” “Those love the people are always loved by the
people.” “Taking pity on others is an expression of benevolence”.
“ Confucius says, “Benevolence means selflessness and restoration
to the rites. Once this is achieved, the empire will achieve
benevolence.” “What is benevolence? It is none other than
establishing others for the sake of establishing oneself and
making others successful for the sake of making oneself successful.”
Zi Gong asked about the doctrine of truth: “Would it be all
right to salvage the people while being benevolent to them,”
Confucius replied that this was beyond benevolence and was
simply something fit for the sages. Confucius says, “Those
who can practice five virtues in the empire are benevolent
indeed. The five virtues are respectfulness, magnitude, honesty,
acumen and kindness. Respectfulness dispels disrespectfulness.
Magnitude gains popularity. Honesty brings trust. Acumen brings
meritorious performance. Kindness brings willing service.”
The Great Learning also teaches, “Only those who are benevolent
can love or hate correctly.” “It is close to benevolence
to be firm and steadfast, simple and slow.” A noble man is
ready to lay down his own life in pursuit of or in defense
of benevolence. “Men with high ideals never shun death at
the sacrifice of benevolence. They prefer to die to achieve
benevolence.” Once there is moral benevolence, there will
be courage in deeds. According to Confucianism, benevolent
rule means ruling the country and the people with charity,
kindness, offering, wisdom and sincerity. |
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| 那么，“仁政”究竟是什么呢？孟子说：“仁，人心也。”
“仁者爱人”，“爱人者，人恒爱之”。 “恻隐之心，仁也。” 孔子说：“克己复礼为仁。一日克己复礼，天下归仁焉。” “夫仁者，己欲立而立人，己欲达而达人。”
子贡问道：“如有博施于民而能济众，何如？” 孔子则答曰：这何止是仁，简直就是圣人做的事情了。孔子说：“能行五者于天下，为仁矣。”即“恭，宽，信，敏，惠。恭则不悔，宽则得众，信则人任焉，敏则有功，惠则足以使人。”
《大学》中也说：“唯仁人为能爱人，能恶人”。 “刚，毅，木，讷，近仁。” 高尚的人为了追求“仁”，捍卫“仁”可以舍弃自己的生命。即“志士仁人，无求生以书仁，有杀身以成仁。”
有了道德上的“仁”，也就有了行为上的勇气。 按照儒家的思想理解，“仁政“是以慈爱、善良、施予、智慧、诚信等的精神境界和心地管理国家、统治人民。
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| Confucian
benevolent rule ideology has mainly the following four implications
in international relations. |
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| 儒家的“仁政“思想对于国际关系主要有以下四个方面的意义：
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| 1.
Benevolence rule in one country may lead to stability and
prosperity of that country. Benevolence rule in all countries
may lead to world stability and prosperity. Otherwise, the
country will be restless. The world will be restless. Or in
the words of Mencius, “Benevolence spells prosperity and
non-benevolence, humiliation.” |
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1、
一国推行仁政可以使国家安定繁荣；各国都推行仁政，整个世界将安定繁荣。
否则，一国将无宁日，世界将无宁日，即孟子所谓：“仁则荣，不仁则辱。” |
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2.
Be benevolence to other countries.
Confucian benevolence embraces both internal and external
aspects. In most cases, Confucian benevolence mainly aims
at internal rule. In international relations, we may introduce
it to the external aspect. |
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2、
对其他国家实行“仁政”。
儒家的“仁政”，包含有对内和对外的两个方向。在大多数情况下，儒家的“仁政”主要是
指内政。在国际关系方面，我们借鉴儒家的思想不仅要强烈对内施行仁政，更要强调一国对外、对其他国家也要实行仁政。 |
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| 3.
Apply benevolence to bind the pursuit of interests and put
benevolence and interests into a proper order. |
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| 3、
要用仁政来约束对利益的追求，摆正仁政与利益的关系。 |
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| If
in international relations all countries make their own interests
the top priority, there will certainly arise a situation of
non-benevolence to scramble for interests. If a country is
allowed to damage the interests of another country for egoistic
purposes, then the victimized country will certainly struggle
for more interests to compensate it own loss, and even will
inflict greater damages to those of the adversary. With such
a malignant cycle going on, the world will definitely be in
a great chaos. Therefore we should not advocate the slogan
of national interests above everything else in international
relations, but rather infiltrate the ideal of “benevolence”
and apply it to bind the pursuit of interests. |
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在国际关系中，如果各国都把利益当作是首要目标，必然会出现竞相逐利而不仁的局面。
任何国家都会为了追求本国的一己私利，而损害他国的利益。而他国因为自己的利益遭到损害并要获得更多的利益，必然要奋力相夺，甚至反过来程度更甚地损害对方国家的利益。如此恶性循环，世界必将大乱。所以，在国际关系中也不应该提倡国家利益至上的口号，而应该灌输“仁政”的理念，用仁政来约束利益。 |
| |
4.
Grasp the essence of kindness and offering in benevolent rule
and give consideration to the multifarious changes and manifestations
of benevolence.
Benevolence manifests itself in many ways in international
relations. For example, it is not allowed for one country
to safeguard or develop itself on the basis of undermining
the interests of another country. A rich country should not
be rich all alone. It should give some of its financial and
technical resources to some poor countries. Nor should the
poor countries self-contentedly rely on foreign aid. They
should, instead, practice strict industry and frugality and
try hard to improve themselves, and so on and so forth.
|
| |
4、
要把握“仁政”善良和施予的本质，兼顾“仁政”的多种变化与表现。
“仁政”在国际关系上的表现是多种多样的。比方说，一个国家不能在损害他国的基础上
来保卫或发展自己。富国不应该一国独富，而应该拿出一定的财力、技术等支援穷国。穷国不应该只是心安理得地依赖外来的援助，而应该克勤克俭，努力治理好自己的国家等等。
|
| |
| III.
“Righteousness and Courage”: Model of Virtue |
| |
| 三、“义勇”——道德的楷模 |
| |
| Righteousness
and courage occupy a very important position in Confucian
ideology. Pursuing after righteousness with courage as the
supplement was the model of virtue aspired for by the Confucianism.
|
| |
“义”和“勇”在儒家的思想中占有重要的地位。追求“义”，兼有“勇”是儒家向往的道
德楷模。 |
| |
| What
was righteousness and courage then? Courage is easy to understand.
“Courage means fearlessness.” So to be fearless means to
be courageous. The implications of righteousness are more
complicated and sophisticated. Mencius gave many interpretations
on and metaphors to righteousness: “It is a sense of righteousness
to be ashamed or to disgust.” ”It is righteous to respect
the elders.” “Righteousness means the way man should follow.”
“Don’t abandon the way and hold on to it.” The Book of
Rites says, “ It is called a work of righteousness to remove
all natural disasters.” In ancient Chinese, the character
“righteousness ” resembles “moderation,” meaning aptitude
or appropriateness, or proper fitness. It was extended to
mean proper way, morality and justice, etc. The word righteousness
sometimes pointed to its original meaning, sometimes to its
extended meaning, and sometimes to both. |
| |
| 什么是“义”和“勇”呢？“勇”是比较好理解的。所谓“勇者不惧”
，不惧谓之“勇”。“义”的含义则比较复杂、深奥。孟子对“义”有多种解释和比喻：“羞恶之心，义也。” “敬长，义也。”
“义，人路也。”“舍其路而弗由”。 《礼记》中则说：“除去天地之害，谓之义。” 在古汉语中“义”同“宣”，是适度、恰当当、恰到好处的意思，引申为正道、道义、正义等。儒家所讲的“义”，有时是用其本意，有时是用其引伸意义，有时两种含义兼而有之。 |
| |
| Mencius’
elucidation of righteousness and survival was resounding,
stirring and world-shocking. He says, “Survival and righteousness
are both my aspirations. If both were not obtainable, I would
prefer the latter to the former.” |
| |
| 孟子关于“义”和“生命”的论述掷地有声，震撼心灵，响彻寡宇：“生，亦我所欲也。义，义我所欲也。二者不可得兼，舍生而取义者也。”
|
| |
| Confucius
also had many expositions on righteousness. He says, “A superior
man has no rigid demand on worldly affairs. He would consider
it good so long as they are righteous.” “A superior man
is keen on righteousness and an inferior man is keen on profits.”
Confucius lauded Zi Chan for four virtues, one of which was
his righteous approach to the people. “It would be worrisome
for me if I found righteousness taught but not observed, and
what was bad could not be improved.” “To be rich and distinguished
without being righteous would be just like fleeting clouds
to me.” “A superior man takes righteousness as a matter
of quality.” “A superior man gives top priority to righteousness.”
“It is virtuous to keep faith and honesty.” Meanwhile, “Righteousness”
was a good way to rule. Confucius says, “When superiors favors
righteousness, nobody dares disobey.” |
| |
| 孔子对于“义”也有许多论述。孔子说：“君子之于天下也，无适也，无莫也，义之与比。”
“君子喻于义，小人喻于利。” 孔子称赞子产具有君子的四种道德。其中之一就是“其使民也义”。 “闻义不能徙，不善不能改，是吾忧也”。
“不义而富且贵，于我如浮云。” “君子义以为质”。 “君子义以为上。” “主忠信，徙义，崇德也。” 同时，“义”还是统治人民的良好方法。孔子说：“上好义，则民莫敢不服”。
|
| |
| From
these expositions we can see the importance placed by Confucianism
on righteousness. But what was then the proper relationship
between righteousness and courage? Confucius says, “A superior
man would cause confusion if he were courageous but not righteous.
An inferior man would become a robber if he were courageous
but not righteous.” From this we can see that righteousness
should come first, being the commander and the fundamental
element. We must not be courageous without being righteous.
Only when we are courageous as well as righteous can we achieve
perfection. |
| |
| 从这些论述中我们可以看出儒家对于“义”重视的程度。那么，“义”和“勇”又是怎样一种关系呢？孔子说：“君子有勇而无义为乱，小人有勇而无义为盗。”
可见，“义”应该是“勇”的统帅、根本，不能有“勇”无“义”。“勇”和“义”配合才相得益彰。 |
| |
| But
what can we assimilate from righteousness and courage in international
relations and diplomatic affairs? |
| |
| 那么，“义”、“勇”在国际关系和外交上有何可借鉴之处呢？
|
| |
| 1.
A country should give top priority to the goal of righteousness
and justice in handling diplomatic affairs and international
relations. |
| |
| 1、
国家应该把道义和正义目标放在外交和处理国际关系的首要地位。 |
| |
| To
do so, it must be brave enough. Otherwise it may shun away
from being righteous. |
| |
| 要想做到这一点，必须有勇气相配合。否则，将因为惧怕而不敢、也不能伸张道义和正义。 |
| |
| 2.
A country must never abandon righteousness in the face of
profits, but must rather “think of righteousness at the sight
of them.” It must acquire interests in a reasonable, legitimate
and moral manner, just as the saying goes, “A superior man
treasures wealth, but he is more mindful of the way how to
get it.” |
| |
2、
在利益面前，不能见利忘义，而应该“见利思义”。 要通过合理、正当、符合道义的
方式获得利益。即所谓君子爱财，取之有道。 |
| |
| 3.
While upholding justice, a country must be courageous to “meet
the challenges despite all dangers involved” . But it must
also correctly size up the situations and handle things properly
according to the changing situations. That is, “When the
state is under a good rule, be righteous in your words and
behavior. When the state is under a bad rule, keep prudent
in your words and behavior too.” Likewise, when the world
is at peace and stability, a country must be upright in its
words and behavior. When the world is in a chaotic situation,
pregnant with some major threats or latent dangers, a country
must not only be righteous in its behavior, but also be prudent
in its statement. |
| |
| 3、
维护和伸张正义既要有勇气，也要有方法，并注重实际效果。
在伸张正义的时候，既要有“见危授命” 的勇气，也要审时度势，把握分寸。即所谓：“邦
有道、危害危行；邦无道，危行言孙。” 在世界比较安定、太平的时候，表态和行为都要正直；在世界局势混乱，存在某种重大威胁或潜在危险的时候，行为也要符合道义，但表态要谨慎。
|
| |
| 4.
A country of virtue should be brave in undertaking internal
leading responsibility so as to better defend and develop
virtues. |
| |
| 4、
有道义的国家应该勇于承担国际领导责任，以便更好地维护和伸张道义。 |
有道义的国家应该勇于引导或带领道义和勇气不如自己的国家在国际上维护和伸张正义，
承担起国际领导责任。否则，则不能称为是道义。子路说：“君子之仕也，行其义也。”“不仕无义。” 子路所说的“高尚的人出来做官是为了推行道义，不做官则称不上道义”的看法，和一个有道义的国家应该勇于承担国际责任的思路本质上是一致的。但是，子路毕竟是子路，他只是孔子二、三流的学生，他的这一思想虽然有符合孔子思想的一面，但孔子也曾多次强调，在天下混乱，君主无道，高尚的人出来做官也无法发挥作用的时候，高尚的人就应该隐退。
所以，有道义的国家是否应该勇于承担国际责任，引导或带领一般的国家伸张正义，这要看有道义的国家能否在现实条件下发挥自己的正义作用？如果不能发挥作用或没有这种实力，还是韬光养晦为好。
|
| |
| IV.
Sincerity and Honesty: The Starting Point of Settling Down
and Getting on to Work |
| |
| 四、“诚信”——安身立命的出发点 |
| |
| Sincerity
and honesty were Confucian political creeds and important
codes for settling worldly affairs. They were the starting
points and magic weapons for settling down and getting down
to work. |
| |
| “诚”和“信”是儒家行为处世的重要准则和政治信条，是人在社会上得以安身立命的出发点与法宝。 |
| |
| Sincerity
had many implications and interpretations in ancient Chinese.
It meant “purity, no hypocrisy, truthfulness.” It also meant
“respect, truthfulness and no falsehood.” “Sincerity”
in Confucian works also basically carried such implications.
“Honesty” in ancient Chinese implied “no suspicion, no
fault and genuineness.” It was extended to mean “trustworthiness
and credibility.” |
| |
“诚”在古代汉语中有诸多含义和解释：“纯也，无伪也，真实也”；“信也”；“敬也”；“真
实无妄之谓”等含义。 儒家论著中的“诚”也基本是这些含义。“信”在古代汉语中是“不怀疑”，“无差错”、“确实”等意思，引申为“守信用”、“信任”等意思。
|
| There
were many Confucian expositions on sincerity. The Doctrine
of the Mean says, “Sincerity is the beginning and end of
things. There would be nothing without sincerity. That is
why a noble man treasures sincerity. Sincerity is not only
a means to improve oneself, but a means to improve things.”
So Confucianism regarded sincerity as the beginning and end
of all things. Without sincerity, there would have been nothing.
So according to Confucianism, a lofty-minded man thinks highly
of sincerity. He would not only apply it to improve himself,
but also to improve everything. Sincerity, i.e., truthfulness,
is a feature bestowed to things by heaven. Cultivating truthfulness
is within the framework of human activity.” “Those born
sincere are sincere without any reluctance. They are sincere
as a matter of course, without thinking about it. They naturally
comply with the principle of heaven. These are sages. To achieve
sincerity requires to set a good goal and strive for its realization
unswervingly.” Confucianism also regards “sincerity” as
the basis for rectifying the hearts, cultivating the persons,
regulating the families, governing the states and bringing
tranquillity and happiness to the empire. “Sincerity to the
utmost” is the “supreme classics” for ruling an empire
and the fundamental element for stabilizing it. |
| |
| 儒家关于“诚”的论述很多。《中庸》上说：“诚者，物之始终。不诚无物。是故君子诚之为贵。诚者，非自成己而己也，所以成物也。”
儒家把“诚”看作是一切事物的开始和终端，没有“诚”，就形成不了万物。因此，儒家认为，高尚的人非常看重“诚”，不仅用他来完善自己，还要用它来完善事物。“诚”——真实，是上天赋予事物的属性，要修养真实，是人的活动范畴。
“诚者，不勉而中，不思而得，从容中道，圣人也。诚之者，择善而固执之者也。” 儒家还认为，“意诚”，是心正、修身、齐家、治国、平天下的基础；
“至诚”，是治理天下的“大经”，安定天下的根本。 |
| |
| There
were also many Confucian expositions on “honesty.” Confucius
says, The ruler of a state armed with one thousand war chariots
must be trustworthy in dealing with everything. He must economize
human resources and use them only when necessary.” He admonished
his disciples: “Be prudent and trustworthy, love the populace
and be benevolent to all.” He propagated that “a superior
man advocates faith and honesty.” On the contrary, a man
without trust is beneath contempt. How can a big carriage
or a small cart without shafts manage to move ahead? He taught
his disciples mainly four different aspects, one of which
was “honesty.” He advised them to “persist in studies with
faith and uphold truth to the end of their lives.” Trustworthiness
was considered as close to virtue, and so what was promised
could be realized. “If promises are kept with faith and deeds
are performed with respect, even a tribal state can be considered
as good. If promises were not kept with faith and no deeds
were performed with respect, what would be the use of being
a prefecture organ?” “A superior man regards righteousness
as the essence of quality… and supplements it with trustworthiness.”
|
| |
| 儒家关于“信”的论述也不少。孔子说：统治拥有一千辆兵车的国家，要“敬事而信，节用而爱人，使民以时。”
他告诫自己的学生：“谨而信，凡爱众，而亲仁。” 宣扬：君子“主忠信。” 反之，“人而无信，不知其可也。大车无 ，小车无
，其何以行之哉？” 孔子教育学生主要有四个方面的内容，其中之一就是“信”。 他嘱咐学生们：“笃信好学，守死善道。”
认为信约接近于道义，所说的话就可以实现。 “言忠信，行笃敬，虽蛮貊之邦行矣，言不忠信，行不笃敬，虽州里行乎哉？” “君子义以为质，……信以成之。”
|
| |
| Confucius
not only emphasized trustworthiness in ordinary interpersonal
relations, but also paid great attention to it in ruling the
states. Zi Gong asked Confucius about the way to govern a
state. Confucius replied, “ Adequate food, adequate soldiery
and adequate trust from the populace. That will be enough.”
Of these three, he said trust was the most important. “No
ruler can establish himself without trust from the people.”
He advised the rulers to “give higher remuneration to those
who were faithful and trustworthy” when appointing scholars
to official posts. And “this was what was known as scholar
counselors.” “When the ruler is trustworthy, nobody dares
disobey.” His disciple Zi Xia also said, “A superior man
labors his subjects only when he has the credit of trust.
He would rather labor himself before getting trust.” To admonish
the ruler, one must become trustful to him first. Only in
this way can one avoid bad results. “Admonish only when trusted.
Otherwise, an admonition may be mistaken as a vilification.”
|
| |
| 孔子不仅在一般的人际关系上强调“信”，在治理国家方面对“信”也是非常重视的。子贡向孔子问治国之道，孔子说：“足食，足兵，民信之矣。”对此三项，孔子强调，“信”（信任）是最重要的，“民无信不立”。
他奉劝统治者任用士人要“忠信重禄，所以劝士也”。 “上好信，则民莫敢不情。” 他的学生子夏也说：“君子信而后劳其民，未信则以为厉己也”。
对于君主进谏也要首先使其信任，才可避免不良的效果，即“信而后谏，未信则以为谤己也。” |
| |
| For
all its stress on faith, Confucianism did not make it absolute.
“What an inferior man one would be if he obstinately clung
to keeping his minor promises and performing an insignificant
deed!” Following this line of thinking, Mencius further elaborated
the Confucian idea, saying: “A great man needs not keep every
word of his, or stick to performing every deed. The gist lies
in righteousness.” A noble man may not necessarily stick
to minor faith and minor deed. The key is to treat “faith”
from an overall situation of righteousness. Be faithful to
what is righteous and don’t be faithful to what is not. Don’t
let yourself jeopardize overall righteousness for the sake
of being trustworthy on minor issues or sticking to minor
trustworthiness. |
| |
| 儒家虽然重视“信”，但并没有把“信”强调到绝对化的程度。孔子说：“言必信，行必果，径径然小人哉！”
孟子沿着孔子的这一思路，对孔子的这一思想做了进一步的阐述：“大人者，言不必信，行不必果，惟义所在。” 道德高尚的人不必拘泥于小信、小行，关键是要从道义的大局来处理“信”，符合道义的则“信”，不符合道义的则“不信”，不能因为求“信”、或拘泥于“信”而损害道义的大局。
|
| |
| From
the “sincerity” and “honesty” concepts we can acquire
the following revelations: |
| |
| 从儒家的“诚”、“信”思想中，我们可以得到如下启示：
|
| |
1.
We should push genuine and sincere diplomacy.
The foreign policy of a country should be intended to sincerely
push world harmony, prosperity and progress. It should proceed
from the truly objective reality of that country and the world.
Some diplomats who are keen on strategy may consider this
as a pedantic or childish approach. But as things stand, the
opposite is the truth. Sincerity may thaw even a stone heart,
as a Chinese saying goes. The relaxation and reconciliation
between the Republic of Korea and the Democratic People’s
Republic of Korea in the 20th century was to a large extent
due to the sunshine policy pushed by Kim Dae-jung and his
sincere desire to reconcile with the DPRK. This dispelled
the misgivings of DPRK to some extent and pushed the ROK-DPRK
relations a big stride towards national reconciliation. |
| |
1、
要推行真实、诚恳的外交。
外交政策要从本国和世界真实的客观实际出发，对他国以诚相待，以自己的真诚来推动世
界的和谐、繁荣与进步。有些重视谋略的外交家可能会认为这是书呆子的幼稚。其实不然，至诚所至，金石为开。韩朝之所以在2000年出现和解的局面，很大程度上是因为金大中推行阳光政策，真心诚意地同朝鲜和解，才在一定程度上打消了朝鲜的顾虑，使双方向民族和解的方向迈进了一大步。 |
| |
2.
We should set up international prestige.
We should build a good international image through virtuous
behavior and acquire full trust from other countries through
the rule of virtue, benevolence, righteousness and courage.
Only in this way can we be strong enough to coordinate or
guide other countries to renovate what is bad in the world
and improve what is good in it. |
| |
2、
要树立国际威信。
通过“德治”、“仁政”、“义勇”等符合道义的行为树立良好的国际形象，以获得其他国家 的充分信任。这样才有能力协调或带领其他国家改造这个世界不好的一面，完善其好的一面。
|
| |
3.
We should be trustworthy, but not become restrained by trustworthiness
on minor issues.
We should not make any promise lightly on international occasions.
But once we do so, we should keep our own words: We must observe
bilateral, multilateral and international treaties and common
principles. At the same time, we should not be entirely restrained
by “trustworthiness.” With the elapse of time and the change
of the situation, some original agreements that seemed to
be rational at the time may become not rational enough. Under
such circumstances we should evaluate them according to the
principle of virtues. With regard to those that comply with
virtues, we should overcome difficulties and continue to observe
them. As for those that no longer do so, we should, on the
basis of giving full explanations and doing a good job of
reasonable persuasions, cancel the agreements or no longer
observe them. |
| |
3、
要守信用，但不为信用所拘泥。
在国际场合不轻易许诺，一旦许诺则要信守承诺：遵守双边、多边以及国际条约和国际通
则。同时，也不要完全为“守信”所拘泥，随着时间和情况的变化，一些原来看似合理的约定等可能会变得不够合理，那么，对于这种约定要按照道义原则加以衡量，对符合道义的，应排除困难继续遵守；对不符合道义的，应充分阐明理由，并做好解释工作，解除约定或不再遵守。
|
| |
4.
We must comply with virtues in concluding international agreements
and treaties.
Agreements that comply with virtues are not only easily observed
and morally guaranteed in implementation, but also easily
realized because they comply with virtues and the law of things
in their contents. |
| |
4、
订立国际约定、条约等一定要符合道义。
符合道义的信约不仅在遵守上有道义的保障，容易得到遵守，而且，因为它的内容符合道
义，符合事物的规律，也容易获得实现。 |
| |
| V.
“Cherishing Peace”: An Ideal Relationship |
| |
| 五、“贵和”——理想的关系境界 |
| |
| Confucianism
treasures peace and its idea of cherishing peace has been
widespread. Such an idea has been almost universally accepted
by the later generations. It has been widely applied in international
relations and diplomatic fields as well. For example, in the
1950s China and India put forward the Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence; Khruschev, head of the former Soviet Union, put
forward the diplomatic line of peace, peaceful coexistence
and peaceful transition. These were all manifestations of
the extensive and far-reaching influence of Chinese Confucian
“peaceful” spirit. “Peace” is an ideal realm pursued by
Confucianism in handling interpersonal and state-to-state
relations. |
| |
| 儒家重视“和”，以“和”为贵的思想流传很广，几乎为后世和大众所普遍接受。在国际关系和外交领域也有广泛的应用。如在50年代，中国同印度提出的“和平共处五项原则”，苏联首脑赫鲁晓夫所提出的“三和”外交路线等，都说明了中国儒家思想中“和”的精神的广远影响。“和”是儒家在处理人际关系、国家间关系所追求的一个理想的境界。 |
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| “Peace”
in ancient Chinese meant “smoothness, harmony, or a state
between tough and soft.” The Doctrine of the Mean says, “Unexpressed
joy, anger, grief and happiness is described as “intermediate.”
Intermediate expression of the moods is described as “peaceful
expression.” “What is peace? It is the way leading to heavenly
harmony. Provided that is properly positioned under heaven,
all things will grow and flourish.” . The Doctrine of the
Mean describes the ritual expression of human emotions as
“peaceful expression” and regards it as the way leading
to universal harmony. If intermediate and peaceful expression
is achieved and well positioned in heaven and on earth, then
all things will grow and prosper. |
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| “和”在古汉语中的意思是：“顺也，谐也，不坚不柔也。”
《中庸》上说：“喜怒哀乐之未发，谓之中；发而皆中节，谓之和。”“和也者，天下之达道也。致中和，天地位焉，万物育焉。”
《中庸》上把人的感情表达符合礼仪称为“和”，并认为它是天下共通的大道。如果做到了“中”与“和”，天与地则各就其位，万物则发育生长。
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| Confucius
says, “In the application of Rites, peace is most valuable.”
What he meant was in applying the rites we should be neither
too rigid nor too soft. Appropriateness is most valuable.
Mencius directly applied “peace” to interpersonal relationship.
He says, “Climate and weather are not as important as geographical
position. Geographic position is not as important as peaceful
human relations.” The Rites applied “peace” to governance
and rule of the state. It says, “ It is called peace if the
people are happy with the state orders issued.” This was
manifested in the “smooth and harmonious relationship between
the ruler and the ruled, the superiors and the inferiors in
a country. According to The Book of Rites, “ Righteousness
and honesty, peace and benevolence are all means of domination.
It will not be successful to rule without proper means.”
It regarded “peace” as one of the four instruments for ruling
the people. The Book of History directly applied “peace”
to inter-state relationship. In praising Emperor Yao for his
great achievements, it said, “His Majesty cited good people
and harmonized all dukedoms.” Thus it praised him for citing
and awarding the good people in an effort to coordinate and
smooth out the relations among all dukedoms at the time. From
this we can see the importance attached by Confucianism to
“peace.” The ideology of “peace” was infiltrated into
all spheres of life ranging from ordinary matters to interpersonal
relations and to administrative governance, rule of dukedoms
and inter-state relationships. |
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| 孔子说：“礼之用，和为贵。”
意思是说，推行礼仪，应该不刚不柔，恰到好处才是可贵的。孟子则把“和”的思想直接用于人际关系。孟子说：“天时不如地利，地利不如人和。”
而《礼记》则把“和”的思想用到了理政、治国方面，称“发号出令而民说，谓之和”。 这体现了统治者与被统治者、国家的上与下之间“顺”与“谐”的关系。《礼记》还认为“义与信，和与仁、霸王之器也。有治民之意而无其器，则不成。”
它把“和”看作是统治人民的四个主要工具之一。而《尚书》则把“和”直接用到了各国的关系上。《尚书》在颂扬尧皇的丰功伟绩时说：“百姓昭明，协和万邦。”
说尧皇表彰和奖励好的百姓，努力协调和理顺各诸侯国之间的关系。由此可见，儒家对“和”的重视，从一般的事物，到人际关系，到理政治国，到国际关系都侵透了“和”的思想。
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| What
are we to assimilate from the “peaceful spirit” in modern
international relations then? |
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| 那么，“和”的精神对现代国际关系又有哪些可资借鉴的地方呢？
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| 1.
We should recognize that peace is the basis for all countries
to survive and develop. |
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| 1、
要认识到“和”是各个国家生存和发展的基础。 |
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| We
should highlight “peace” as an ideal in international relations
and cherish it as the basis for inter-state survival and development.
As “peace” is the very basis for all things under heaven
to multiply and thrive, so nothing could possibly be in place
without “peace.” Nothing could possibly operate, evolve
and develop regularly without it. Hence we should also emphasis
peace in international relations. Without peace in international
relations, countries could not possibly be in place either.
They could not possibly operate and develop regularly either.
We should not just give ordinary importance to “peace” in
international relations. We should highlight the idea as the
basis for state-to-state survival and development. In peace
all nations can improve and develop themselves. In a world
without peace countries will lose their proper positions,
complaining against each other or even cherishing hatred for
each other. This may lead to no way of survival and development
and in some cases, may lead to national extinction. |
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要把“和”提升到国际关系理念中的一个高度地位，把它视为国家间生存与发展的基础，
加以珍视。因为“和”是天地万物生息发展的基础，没有“和”，事物则不能各就其位，也就不能正常运作、演化、发展，所以，在国家关系之间也要强调“和”。没有“和”，国家与国家也无法各就其位，因此也就无法正常运作、发展。我们不仅要一般性地重视“和”，而且要把它上升到是国与国生存与发展的基础这样一个高度来对待。在“和”的状态下，各国都可以生息、发展；在不“和”的状态下，各国会各失其位，互相怨隙或仇恨，将会导致无法生存、发展，甚至灭亡的地步。 |
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| 2.
We should make the spirit of “peace” as an important code
for handling foreign relations. |
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| 2、
以“和”的精神作为处理对外关系的重要准则。 |
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| We
should infiltrate the spirit of peace into our foreign policy
and diplomatic activities and coexist amicably with all countries
that we can ever coexist amicably with. As to countries which
it is difficult or it is still impossible for us to coexist
amicably with, we should evaluate them according to moral
principles and actively create conditions for amicable coexistence
with those that comply with such principles. We should adopt
an intermediate approach towards those that do not comply
with them. |
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要把“和”的精神渗入到外交政策与活动中，与一切可以和好相处的国家和好相处。对难
以或尚不能和好相处的国家，按照道义原则加以衡量，对符合道义原则的国家应积极主动地创造条件，争取与之和好相处；对不符合道义原则的国家，按照道义原则取中而待之。
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| 3.
We should vigorously advocate the spirit of peace, initiate
and carry it forward on international occasions as an ideal
in international relations and diplomacy with Chinese characteristics.
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3、
应该大力宣扬“和”的精神，把它作为具有中国特色的国际关系和外交理念在国际场
合加以倡导和弘扬。 |
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| “Peace”
is an ideological culture with the strongest Chinese characteristic.
It has not only profound implications, but also universal
applicability and extensive application areas. Therefore it
is necessary to push it among other countries so that they
will understand and accept the essence of the “peaceful spirit”
in Chinese ideology. |
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| “和”是最具中国特色的一种思想文化。它不仅具有深刻的内涵，而且具有普遍的实用性和宽广的应用领域。因此，有必要大力推动各国深刻领会并接受中国的“和”的思想精髓。 |
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| 4.
We should apply the spirit of peace on our initiative to overcome
certain difficulties, realistic or left over by history, in
diplomatic and international relations. We should in this
way create more friendships and partnerships internationally
and thus push internal peace to external peace and vice versa
and solve the Taiwan issue at an earliest possible date. |
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4、
用“和”的精神主动去化解一些在外交和国际关系中现实存在的和历史上遗留下来的
难题，结交更多的国际伙伴和朋友。并由内“和”来推动外“和”，由外“和”来促进内“和”。早日解决台湾问题。 |
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| VI.
Ritual Doctrine: Control Mechanism for a Beneficial Cycle
of Order |
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| 六、“礼教”——秩序良性循环的约束机制 |
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| The
Ritual Doctrine was an important component of Confucian thinking.
During the “Cultural Revolution” it was one of the targets
under fire in Confucianism. It was labeled as “harmful to
the people,” “defending the feudal hierarchy.” Objectively
speaking, there were certain dross elements in Confucian ritual
thinking. It was not only extremely complicated and trifling,
much to the advantage of the superiors and the rulers, but
also very restrictive on man’s thinking and behavior. However,
in terms of its rational internal core, the gist remains very
positive even today. Among others, it offers the code for
everybody in society (the ruler and minister, father and son,
brothers, husband and wife, the elder and the young, friends)
to perform his proper function, keep to his position and fulfil
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